Timeframe: Fifth Year of Prophethood

Background and Context

In the fifth year of Prophethood, persecution of the early Muslim community in Makkah had reached a level of sustained and organized violence. Those without powerful tribal protection faced torture, economic exclusion, and in some cases death. The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) did not respond with retaliation. He responded by protecting lives.

He instructed a group of believers to cross the Red Sea and seek refuge in a Christian kingdom known in Arabic sources as al-Habasha (الحبشة). Greek and Latin writers recorded the same region under forms such as Aithiopia and later Abissinia, from which the English name Abyssinia derives. These names refer to the same geographic and ethnic region in the Horn of Africa.

The political authority governing that region in the early seventh century was the Kingdom of Aksum, a Christian state centered in what is now northern Ethiopia and Eritrea. “Aksum” was the name of the ruling kingdom and its capital city. “Al-Habasha” or “Abyssinia” was the broader regional designation used across Arabic, Greek, and Latin sources. The two terms refer to the same territory during this period but reflect different linguistic and political frameworks.

The king of this realm is referred to in Arabic seerah sources as al-Najashi (النجاشي), an Arabicized title corresponding to the Geʿez title Negus or Negashi, meaning “king.” His personal name in early Islamic sources is given as Ashama ibn Abjar. The Prophet described him as a ruler under whom no one was wronged and chose this land specifically for that reason. Early Muslims needed a place where they could worship without torture.

Authenticity note: The identification of al-Najashi as Ashama ibn Abjar comes from later seerah literature. His exact regnal identity cannot be confirmed from contemporary Aksumite records, as the Geʿez royal chronicle of this period is not fully preserved. The characterization of him as a just ruler is consistent across all major seerah compilations.

The First Migration

The first group departed quietly to avoid interception by Quraysh. Classical seerah sources differ on the precise headcount. The figure most commonly cited is approximately eleven or twelve men and four or five women, though some accounts give slightly different numbers.

Among those consistently named across major seerah compilations are ʿUthman ibn ʿAffan and Ruqayyah bint Muhammad, the daughter of the Prophet (peace be upon him). They crossed the Red Sea and reached the shores of Abyssinia because Quraysh had no authority or reach within Aksumite territory, the harassment and persecution stopped for those who made the crossing.

Authenticity note: The exact headcount varies across sources and should not be treated as a precise figure. The names of the individuals included are consistent across Ibn Hisham, Ibn Saʿd, and Ibn Kathir.

The Return and the Rumor

Some of the migrants returned to Makkah after word reached them that the situation with Quraysh had changed and that tensions had cooled. The seerah account most frequently given for why this news spread involves the public recitation of Surah al-Najm by the Prophet Muhammdad (peace be upon him) in Makkah. At the end of the recitation, the Prophet (peace be upon him) prostrated, and several narrations report that members of Quraysh including some who had not embraced Islam also prostrated.

Word traveled across the sea that the conflict had ended and that Quraysh had softened. When the returning migrants arrived back in Makkah, they found that this report had been exaggerated or misunderstood. Persecution had not ended. Some of the returnees were able to re-enter the city under the protection of tribal leaders. Others, finding themselves without safe passage, turned around and made their way back to Abyssinia.

Authenticity note: The prostration at the end of Surah al-Najm is recorded in Sahih al-Bukhari (Book of Sujud al-Quran) and is on firm ground. The reports explaining exactly how news of the prostration was conveyed to the migrants in Abyssinia, and what interpretation they were given, come from seerah literature and vary in chain strength. The core sequence that migrants returned based on a misunderstood report and then found conditions unchanged is consistently described by Ibn Hisham, al-Tabari, and Ibn Saʿd, though fine details of the transmission differ.

The Second Migration

Persecution in Makkah continued and, in some cases, intensified. A larger group of believers undertook a second migration to Abyssinia. Early sources often cite the total at approximately eighty-three men plus a number of women and children, though the precise count varies slightly across historians. This second wave formed the main Muslim community in exile.

The figure who emerged as the spokesperson and leader of this community was Jaʿfar ibn Abi Talib, a cousin of the Prophet (peace be upon him). His role became decisive when Quraysh moved to force the king to deport the Muslims and return them to Makkah.

Authenticity note: The figure of approximately eighty-three men is the most commonly cited number and appears in Ibn Hisham and related compilations. Exact counts differ slightly across sources and should be understood as approximate.

The Quraysh Delegation

Quraysh could not tolerate a protected Muslim community beyond their control. They assembled gifts, carefully selected items known to be valued at the Aksumite court, including goods intended both for the king and for the bishops and church officials around him and sent two envoys to Abyssinia. The names most consistently recorded across the major seerah compilations are ʿAmr ibn al-ʿAs and ʿAbdullah ibn Abi Rabiʿah.

Their strategy was two-pronged. They first attempted to win over the religious advisors at court, hoping to build opposition to the Muslims before they were even heard. Then they approached al-Najashi directly with their accusation: that the Muslim migrants had abandoned the religion of their forefathers and adopted a new creed that was neither the traditional Arab religion nor Christianity. They framed the Muslims as dissidents and troublemakers who should be returned to their own people.

Authenticity note: The names of the two envoys and the general outline of their strategy are stable across seerah accounts. The specific wording of their arguments to the king varies in different narrations and should not be taken as verbatim record.

Jaʿfar ibn Abi Talib Speaks Before al-Najashi

Al-Najashi refused to act on Quraysh’s request without first hearing from the Muslims themselves. This decision was itself significant, rather than accepting the word of the delegation, he insisted on direct testimony. Jaʿfar ibn Abi Talib was chosen to speak on behalf of the Muslim community.

Jaʿfar described their life before Islam. A time he characterized as one of ignorance, injustice, and degradation — the worship of idols, the oppression of the weak, the severing of family ties. He then described what the Prophet had called them to which was the worship of Allah alone, truthfulness in speech, the honoring of family bonds, and the protection of those who could not protect themselves.

Al-Najashi then asked what had been revealed to them about Jesus and Mary. Jaʿfar recited verses from Surah Maryam, the nineteenth chapter of the Quran, which describes the Virgin Mary and the birth of Jesus (ʿIsa, peace be upon him) in terms of profound reverence. The king and the bishops present were visibly moved. Classical sources report that tears fell as they listened. Al-Najashi ruled that he would not hand the Muslims over to Quraysh. He returned the envoys’ gifts and reaffirmed the protection of the Muslim community.

Authenticity note: The court scene involving Jaʿfar’s speech is one of the most widely transmitted episodes in the seerah and is accepted across mainstream biography literature — Ibn Hisham, al-Tabari, Ibn Saʿd, and Ibn Kathir all include versions of it. The core facts are consistent. The exact wording of the speech is not preserved in a sahih hadith chain; it is a seerah-grade narration. The recitation of Surah Maryam and its effect on the king are part of this same seerah tradition.

The Question of Jesus

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DNA, History, and the Truth Behind the Claims

When people argue about Palestine today, one question keeps coming up again and again: Who is Indigenous to this land? This question is not abstract or academic. It is used right now to justify displacement, violence, and the erasure of an entire people. Claims about ancestry, DNA, and ancient ownership are often presented as proof that one group belongs here and another does not.

To answer it honestly, we have to be precise about what “Indigenous” actually means. Indigenous identity is not based on religion, belief, or ancient memory alone. It refers to people who have a continuous ancestral, cultural, and historical connection to a specific land. Indigenous populations do not disappear and reappear. They remain, adapt, convert religions, change languages, and live through different political eras while staying rooted in the same place.

With that definition in mind, the question becomes clearer: Who shows continuity on this land?

The earliest recorded civilization that lived on the land known today as Palestine were the Canaanites. They lived here more than 4,000 years ago and were Indigenous to the Levant. They built cities, farmed the land, developed culture, and formed the earliest known population that history can name in this region. They were not outsiders and not invaders. They emerged from the land itself.

This matters because populations in the ancient Levant were never wiped out and replaced in the way propaganda often suggests. Archaeology does not show mass population disappearance followed by total replacement. Instead, it shows continuity. People stayed. They mixed. They adapted. Over time, some Canaanites became Israelites, some became Christians, some later became Muslims. Religious identity changed. Political rulers changed but the population remained.

This is where DNA evidence becomes relevant, but it must be used carefully. Genetic studies consistently show that modern Palestinians share strong genetic continuity with ancient Levantine populations. This includes Canaanite-era ancestry. That does not mean Palestinians are “pure” Canaanites, because no population is genetically frozen in time. It means they descend largely from the same ancient population that lived on this land for thousands of years.

Palestinians did not arrive recently. They did not replace someone else. They are the result of continuous life on the land through the Canaanite period, Roman rule, Byzantine rule, Islamic rule, and Ottoman rule. Conversion to Islam did not erase ancestry. Religion does not rewrite DNA.

This is where a critical distinction needs to be made, because it is often blurred on purpose.

Ancient Israelites were a real historical group, but they were not separate from the region’s Indigenous population. Archaeology shows that early Israelites emerged from within the Canaanite world. They used the same pottery styles, lived in the same geographic zones, and shared the same Semitic cultural roots. They were one group among many in the Levant, not a population that replaced everyone else.

More importantly, ancient presence does not automatically translate into modern ownership. Many groups lived on this land in ancient times. That does not give modern political movements an automatic right to remove people who have lived here continuously for centuries.

Modern Israelis are not the same population as ancient Israelites in a historical or genetic sense. Modern Jewish communities developed across Europe, North Africa, and Asia through centuries of diaspora, conversion, and mixing with local populations. Jewish identity today is primarily religious and cultural, not a marker of continuous Indigenous presence on this land.

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Around 613 CE once the call to Islam moved into public space, the reaction of Quraysh changed almost immediately.

What had begun as quiet curiosity turned into organized resistance. The message was no longer confined to private gatherings or whispered conversations. It was now spoken openly near the Kaʿbah, repeated in marketplaces, and heard within family councils. The leadership of Quraysh recognized that this was no longer something they could ignore or quietly contain.

At this stage, opposition shifted from disbelief to suppression. The aim was not debate. It was pressure, applied first to those who had the least protection.

Methods of Pressure and Harm

Quraysh used a range of tactics, escalating as the public call continued. Ridicule came first, followed by threats, then social and economic pressure. Converts were isolated from their families, cut off from trade, or publicly humiliated. Merchants who accepted Islam found customers avoiding them. Young people were shamed. Slaves were punished.

Prayer itself became a point of harassment. Even when Muslims tried to pray away from public view, they were followed, mocked, and sometimes attacked. Teaching continued, but secrecy became harder to maintain as the number of believers slowly grew.

The pattern was clear. Those without clan protection were targeted first.

Cases of Torture and Steadfastness

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Early Life and Background

Marcion was born around 85 CE in Sinope, a port city on the southern coast of the Black Sea in modern-day Turkey.[2] His birthplace is widely accepted by historians. Early Christian sources, including Tertullian, Irenaeus, and Epiphanius, record that his father was a bishop[3] and that his family was wealthy from the shipping business, enabling him to travel widely and support Christian communities.[4] These details cannot be independently verified, but they fit with what is known of his later life. If accurate, they show that Marcion came from within the heart of the Christian community before rejecting its foundational beliefs.[5]

Arrival in Rome and Early Influence

Marcion arrived in Rome around 140 CE.[6] He gave a large donation, reported as 200,000 sesterces to the Roman church.[7] This gave him influence at first, but his theology and teachings soon led to strong opposition. He began teaching that Christianity should be completely separated from Judaism. This view gained followers but also provoked opposition from those who considered the Hebrew Scriptures foundational to Christian faith.[8] By around 144 CE, he was excommunicated, and his donation was returned.[9]

Theology: Dualism, Docetism, and the Role of Paul

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People hear “Palestine” or “Israel,” and the conversation usually jumps straight to today’s headlines, political arguments, and modern conflict. It all starts in the middle of the story, as if nothing existed before recent history. But when you slow down and look past the noise, a real question appears, one that most people never stop to ask: Where did this land actually begin? Long before borders, armies, and modern governments, this land already had a life of its own. Civilizations lived here, languages formed here, and cultures grew out of its soil. The names changed across eras, empires rose and collapsed, and yet the land kept its identity through the people who were rooted in it. Their ancestry, their DNA, and their traditions carried the memory of this land long before any modern political structure existed.

Today, most people only see the ending chapter. They debate the present without understanding the beginning, the history of the land itself and the history of the people who belong to it. That is where this series begins. Not with 1948. Not with the British Mandate. Not with the Ottomans or the Crusaders. It begins at the earliest point that historians and archaeologists can trace with credible evidence, the origin story of the land and the Indigenous communities whose identity is woven into it. Because once you understand what this land was, who lived here first, how old their roots are, and how their connection to the land developed over thousands of years, the later chapters like the Mandate, Zionism, the Nakba, the occupation, and everything that follows becomes clear instead of confusing. This is the beginning of the story.
This is Origins of the Land of Olives.

The Canaanites The First Recorded Civilization of the Land of Olives

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The story of Adam and Eve ( Hawwa ) the origin point for all three Abrahamic faiths. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam all claim to follow the God of Adam, and all three preserve a version of his story. When you look at the actual texts, the differences are major. These differences aren’t just in the details, they shape how each religion views God, sin, human nature, and the meaning of life.

In this article, we compare the story of Adam as told in the Torah, the Christian Bible, and the Qur’an. We use only direct quotes from the texts. No summaries, no paraphrasing, and no selective verses. We present the full story each religion teaches and then examine what that tells us about the bigger picture.

The Story of Adam in the Torah

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The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) moved from private invitation to a public call after clear instruction from Allah. This shift changed the nature of the mission. Quiet teaching inside safe circles became open warning in front of family, tribe, and city.

The command to warn publicly

“And warn your closest relatives.” (Qur’an 26:214)
This verse marked the transition from da‘wah sirriyyah to da‘wah ‘ammah. The move was a direct command from Allah. It was not a human strategy or a change of personal style.

First step: Warn the family (Da‘wat al-‘Ashirah)

The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) invited his close relatives from Banu Hashim to a private meal. The goal was to give the message to the inner family first.

Reports describe two attempts. The first meeting did not progress because Abu Lahab disrupted it with hostile words before the message could be delivered fully. A second meeting followed. The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) spoke clearly. Worship Allah alone. Lineage would not save anyone without faith and obedience. Family ties would not override personal responsibility before Allah.

Narrations for this scene say Abu Talib responded in a protective way at the clan level. He did not accept Islam then. He still promised protection for his nephew within the custom of tribal shielding. That protection mattered in the early public phase.

This family warning sets the stage for the Safa announcement to the wider Quraysh audience. The clan heard it first in a private setting. The city would hear it next in a public place.

Second step: Mount Safa

After the family had already been warned, the next step was public. The message inside the household was clear. The call now moved outside.

The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) went up Mount Safa. The location allowed people in Makkah to gather quickly. He called out “O Bani Fihr! O Bani `Adi!” addressing various tribes of Quraish till they were assembled. “Ya Sabahah” That was the alarm call people used when danger approached the city. People came to see what had happened. Some came in person. Some sent a messenger to listen and report back.

The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) spoke to the clans. He wanted no confusion about credibility. He pointed to the hill and set a test that everyone could understand. “Suppose I told you that there is an (enemy) cavalry in the valley intending to attack you, would you believe me?” The people answered “Yes, for we have not found you telling anything other than the truth.” that he had never lied. The point of the test was now public. The community agreed on his truthfulness in worldly matters.

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The story in all three Abrahamic religions about the creation of the universe exists. This is where everything began. The accounts found in the Qur’an, the Torah, and the Bible set the foundation for each religion’s understanding of life, purpose, and the Creator. This article compares what each scripture says, using direct full-word verses and detailed explanation with context and comparison. The goal is to understand the similarities and differences based on the original texts.

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This article presents what each major source claims, where those claims converge, where they conflict, and what is uncertain. The goal is clarity, not partisanship.

The Twelve in Christian Tradition

Christian texts report that Jesus chose twelve named apostles. Gospels titled Mark and Matthew provide lists that substantially agree, the Gospel traditionally titled ‘Luke’ lists their names (Luke 6:12–16). The work traditionally titled ‘Acts of the Apostles’ reports that Matthias was chosen to replace Judas Iscariot after Judas’ death (Acts 1:21–26). Acts is the narrative sequel to Luke in early Christian tradition. The number twelve likely also carries symbolic meaning that recalls the twelve tribes of Israel.

“Twelve” is more than a headcount. In Israel’s scriptures (the Jewish Tanakh, called the Old Testament in most Christian Bibles; here “Israel” means the ancient biblical people, not the modern state) the nation is structured around twelve tribes descended from Jacob, who is also called Israel (Genesis 32:28; 35:10). Jacob’s sons are Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Issachar, Zebulun, Joseph, and Benjamin. Lists sometimes differ for practical reasons. Levi is set apart for priestly service and does not receive a land allotment, and Joseph is often counted through his sons Ephraim and Manasseh so the total remains twelve in land distributions. That background explains why the Gospels present Jesus choosing twelve named disciples. The number signals a reconstitution of Israel around him, not an arbitrary team size. The texts make the symbolism explicit. Jesus promises the Twelve they will sit on twelve thrones judging the twelve tribes of Israel (Matthew 19:28) and gives them a share in his kingdom (Luke 22:28–30). In Bible language, “judge” means to govern or exercise authority, not only to hold a courtroom. The New Jerusalem is pictured with twelve gates named for the tribes and twelve foundations named for the apostles (Revelation 21:12–14). Luke–Acts reinforces the point by restoring the group to twelve before Pentecost when Matthias replaces Judas (Luke 6:12–16; Acts 1:21–26). Biblical lists of tribes vary in some passages for literary or symbolic reasons, for example Revelation 7 omits Dan and lists Joseph in place of Ephraim, yet the theological point stays the same: “twelve” denotes the fullness of Israel. The apostles do not map one-for-one to tribal names. They function as a representative leadership for Israel renewed around Jesus. Christian tradition connects the Twelve apostles with the twelve tribes of Israel as a symbol of Israel renewed while the Qur’an connects “twelve” to the Children of Israel only, twelve tribes and twelve leaders. It does not connect Jesus’s disciples to the number twelve or to the twelve tribes. It refers to them simply as al-hawariyyun without giving a number.

Names in the canonical lists

Peter (Simon Peter or Cephas), Andrew, James son of Zebedee, John son of Zebedee, Philip, Bartholomew, Matthew (Levi), Thomas (Didymus), James son of Alphaeus, Thaddaeus (Judas son of James), Simon the Zealot, Judas Iscariot. Matthias is added in Acts 1 to replace Judas.

While the Gospels titled Matthew, Mark, and Luke as well as Acts provide lists of the Twelve apostles by name, the Gospel of John refers several times to “the Twelve” as a group , but never actually lists all their names together. This difference shows that John assumes knowledge of the group but does not present a formal roster like the Synoptic Gospels.

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Engineering didn’t begin with blueprints or academic titles. It started with instinct, with a hand holding a stone and realizing it could shape the world. The moment early humans chipped rock into sharp edges or carved bone into needles, they were engineering. These weren’t just random acts of survival. While some trial and error existed, early humans showed deliberate, creative insight. They shaped tools through a mix of instinct, memory, and problem-solving. Not as mindless creatures, but as beings capable of learning and adapting.

From the very beginning, humans were created with insight, intelligence, and intention. From that first stone tool to the machines that power our modern lives, the journey of engineering has always been global but the credit hasn’t always been.

Mesopotamia (Sumerians)

The Sumerians of ancient Mesopotamia were among the first to formalize engineering into systems. They invented the wheel around 3500 BCE. They didn’t invent the wheel for chariots, but for pottery and carts used in agriculture [1]. They constructed ziggurats with layered bricks and developed canal systems and irrigation channels that allowed farming in harsh environments. Their tools included plumb bobs, measuring ropes, and metal chisels. This was practical, hands-on engineering grounded in real needs and it happened thousands of years before any European Renaissance.

Egypt

In ancient Egypt, engineering reached monumental scale. The pyramids weren’t built through guesswork or superstition. They used surveying instruments like the merkhet (a stellar alignment tool) and plumb lines for vertical accuracy [2]. Massive limestone blocks were cut with copper chisels and lifted using ramps and rollers. The construction of the pyramids, especially those at Giza, required a workforce of highly trained artisans — not slaves, as once wrongly claimed in Western textbooks. The truth is, Egyptian engineers mastered structural alignment, water management, and geometry with incredible precision.

Indus Valley Civilization

Often overlooked, the Indus Valley Civilization (present-day Pakistan and northwest India) created some of the most advanced urban engineering of the ancient world. Cities like Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa had standardized baked bricks, grid-planned streets, sewage systems, and even indoor toilets connected to drainage networks [3]. They used lathe-turned tools, weight systems carved from chert, and early metallurgy techniques. Yet they’re rarely mentioned in mainstream engineering history. Why? Because their writing system hasn’t been fully deciphered and that’s been used as an excuse to ignore their legacy.

Ancient China

China’s contributions to engineering go far beyond the compass and paper. The Chinese invented the wheelbarrow, advanced bridge-building techniques, early suspension systems, canal locks, and even seismographs [4]. The Grand Canal, constructed and expanded across dynasties is one of the greatest hydraulic engineering feats in history. Cast iron production appeared in China at least a thousand years before it showed up in Europe. Their engineering achievements were practical, mathematical, and long-lasting, yet are still downplayed in most Western-centered narratives.

Indigenous Civilizations: Independent Engineering Across Continents

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Resumption and the command to act

The silence ended in a powerful moment. One day, the Prophet (s.a.w) looked up and saw the same angel he had seen in Hira, Jibril standing across the horizon. He returned home asking to be covered. Revelation resumed, and the Prophet (s.a.w) was instructed to move from receiving to warning. The opening of Surah al-Muddaththir is the marker:

“O you who covers himself [with a garment],
Arise and warn,
And your Lord glorify,
And your clothing purify.” (Qur’an 74:1–4)

This is the formal start of the mission to warn and call. According to Sahih al-Bukhari (Book 1, Hadith 3), when the angel appeared, the Prophet (s.a.w) returned home and asked to be covered, then these verses were revealed.

Early revelation in this phase

After “Iqra’,” the earliest revelation focused on training and mission. Scholars differ on the exact sequence of chapters, so I present what is commonly listed without claiming a fixed order. Surah al-Muddaththir gave the first mandate to act, rise, warn, glorify Allah, and live with purity. This is where the private work begins: quiet invitations, clear tawhid, and steady character-building grounded in revealed verses.

Surah al-Muzzammil trained the core in night prayer and disciplined recitation. It built patience and inner strength before public opposition even started. The burden was eased later in the same surah (73:20), which shows that training came first and accommodation came after the foundation was set.

Al-Fatihah appears at the start of salah very early in the mission (majority view: Meccan). It frames worship itself praise, Lordship, mercy, accountability, and the straight path and anchors prayer from the beginning.

Alongside these came short, early Meccan chapters many scholars place in this window Al-Qalam (68), Ash-Shams (91), Al-Layl (92), Al-A‘la (87). Exact placement varies in the classical works, which is why I treat them as a cluster rather than a ranked sequence. Their messages match the phase: pure monotheism, moral cleansing, and certainty of the Hereafter.

A later brief pause is often linked to Surah al-Duha. Its reassurance is direct: “Your Lord has not taken leave of you, nor has He detested you.” (Qur’an 93:3) The timing details of that pause vary in the reports, so I include it with caution. The lesson stands either way: revelation guided, comforted, and corrected in real time.

Overall, the themes in this phase are clear: tawhid, the Hereafter, moral purification, leaving idols and their rites, patience, truthfulness, and care for the weak. Law had not been unfolded yet; Allah was shaping belief, worship, and character first.

Early worship before the public call

Early worship in the private phase was training, not law. Surah al-Muzzammil set the routine: stand at night, recite the Qur’an with focus, and build patience and inner strength. Later in the surah the burden was eased. Scholars discuss whether the original command was only for him or also for them, so I present it as training that set the standard for discipline before the public call began.

Before al-Isra’ wa-l-Mi‘raj, many reports indicate that Muslims prayed two rak‘ah in the morning and two in the evening. The five daily prayers were set later at al-Isra’ wa-l-Mi‘raj. Both views are mentioned in the sources, and the exact chains vary in strength, so I include the practice with that caution. The point is simple: structured salah existed in this period, but the full five-prayer schedule came later.

Purification was taught from the start. Reports state that Jibril taught wudu and the basic form of salah early on. These reports appear in Musnad and Sunan collections and are used by historians, and I note them with chain caution. They show that correct worship habits were part of the earliest training.

The qiblah in this phase was Bayt al-Maqdis. In Makkah the Prophet (s.a.w) would align himself to keep the Ka‘bah in front when possible, but the formal change of qiblah to the Ka‘bah came later in Madinah. This helps place early prayer practice on the timeline.

Finally, there was no adhan yet, no fasting legislated yet, no zakat duty yet, and no migration in this period. This was a foundations stage: creed, character, night prayer, disciplined recitation, and quiet obedience while the small community formed its bond with Allah.

How the private da‘wah worked

The method was private and careful. The Prophet (s.a.w) invited people one by one or in trusted small circles. He recited what had been revealed, taught tawhid clearly, and focused on building faith and character. There was no public confrontation yet. The call was not public, but word still traveled. Some Quraysh leaders heard rumors of a new message, while full, organized opposition had not started and would only follow after the public announcement.

The main base was Dar al-Arqam near Safa. It functioned as a safe house for Qur’an teaching, prayer, support, and planning. Sources differ on the exact date it became the base, which is why I place it in the private-to-early-public window rather than tie it to a single day. What matters is its role: a protected space where the first Muslims learned the Qur’an and strengthened their commitment.

Networks mattered. Abu Bakr’s acceptance opened doors because people trusted him. His status and relationships allowed the message to reach families and circles that might not have listened otherwise. That trust translated into rapid, steady growth in these early months.

The earliest believers

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Who was the ensi?

Ensi is a title for a city ruler that is securely attested in the Early Dynastic period. Writing does not survive from the Ubaid period, so the title should not be placed that early. In practice an ensi was a city’s chief administrator and judge, closely tied to the main temple and its estates. Many inscriptions present the ruler as chosen by a patron deity.

Typical duties of an ensi:

• Oversee temple building, offerings, and cult support

• Manage irrigation, fields, labor, and storage

• Hear disputes and issue judgments

• Organize defense when needed

Some cities preferred the title ensi for their top ruler even when nearby cities used lugal. Lagash is a well known example. In the Early Dynastic period ensi could also carry royal weight, not only “governor.” At Lagash, rulers such as Gudea styled themselves ensi while exercising full royal authority.

Lugal: the “great man” as king

Lugal literally means “great man” and in royal contexts it means “king.” Different cities adopted different titulary, and over time lugal became the standard sign used to write the office of kingship, including as a Sumerian logogram in Akkadian texts. The view that a lugal began as a war leader chosen in emergencies comes from Jacobsen’s “primitive democracy” thesis. That is one influential interpretation, not a settled fact.

When both titles coexisted

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When Christianity began in the first century, it was not a single, unified movement. The followers of Jesus came from different backgrounds, spoke different languages, and carried different ideas about who He was and what His message meant. Without a fixed New Testament, each community relied on its own traditions, oral teachings, and written accounts. These differences led to the rise of multiple sects, each claiming to represent the true faith.[1]

The first two centuries were a time of theological experimentation and sharp disagreement. Some groups held tightly to Jewish law, while others rejected it entirely. Some emphasized mystical knowledge, while others insisted on the authority of the apostles. These early divisions set the stage for the later formation of the New Testament canon and the definition of “orthodox” Christianity.[2]

The Apostolic Period (c. 30–70 CE)

According to Christian tradition, Jesus appointed twelve close followers called apostles during his ministry. These Twelve were considered His primary messengers, sent to preach and continue His work after His departure. In Christian belief, they included Peter, John, and others, but not Paul.

Historians agree Jesus had a core group of disciples, but the specific number “twelve” and the event of formally appointing them come only from Christian sources written decades later. No contemporary non-Christian historical records confirm the selection of the Twelve. What these apostles originally taught about Jesus is also known only from Christian tradition, which presents them as proclaiming Him the Messiah and Son of God. Islamic sources, by contrast, refer to Jesus’ close followers as al-hawariyyun, faithful supporters who recognized Him as a prophet and messenger of Allah, without assigning Him divinity.

The earliest Christians were those who had seen Jesus or learned directly from these apostles. The central leadership of the early movement was in Jerusalem, under James (called “the brother of the Lord” in Christian texts), along with Peter and John.[3] The movement at this stage remained closely tied to Judaism, observing the Law of Moses while proclaiming Jesus as the Messiah.[4]

Paul, originally a Pharisee who persecuted early followers, later became a Christian missionary. Unlike the Twelve, he claimed apostleship based on a vision of the risen Jesus after His death. His missionary work brought a new challenge: many Gentiles were joining the faith, and Paul argued they should not be required to follow the full Jewish law. This caused tensions with Jewish Christians who believed the Law remained binding.[5] These disputes are recorded in the New Testament itself, especially in Galatians 2 and Acts 15, which describe debates between Paul and the Jerusalem leadership about circumcision and the Law.[6]

The destruction of the Jerusalem Temple by the Romans in 70 CE marked a turning point. The center of authority in Jerusalem collapsed, and leadership shifted to other cities like Antioch, Rome, and Alexandria.[7] Without the unifying presence of the original apostles, local churches began developing distinct beliefs and practices.

Diversity After the Apostles (c. 70–100 CE)

After the death of the apostles, Christian communities had to preserve the teachings of Jesus without a universally agreed set of writings.[8] Different regions produced and used different gospels and letters.[9] Oral tradition was still powerful, but the message varied from place to place.

This period saw the emergence of movements that emphasized different aspects of Jesus’ life and message. Some still identified strongly with Judaism, while others broke away entirely. The seeds of later heresies were already being planted, as outside philosophical and religious ideas began influencing Christian thought.[10]

Major Sects and Movements in the First Two Centuries

Jewish-Christian Sects

These groups saw themselves as the true heirs of Jesus’ mission, keeping the Mosaic Law while believing in Him as the Messiah.

1. Nazarenes : Accepted Jesus as the Messiah, observed the Law, and used the Hebrew Scriptures along with certain gospel traditions.[11]

2. Ebionites : Rejected the divinity of Jesus, viewing Him as a human prophet chosen by God. They upheld strict Torah observance and rejected Paul as an apostate from the Law.[12]

Gnostic Groups

Gnosticism was a broad religious movement that blended Christian language with mystical and philosophical ideas. It often taught that the material world was created by a lesser deity and that salvation came through secret spiritual knowledge.[13]

1. Sethians : Wove elaborate mythologies about divine beings, the creation of the world, and the role of the biblical figure Seth.[14]

2. Valentinians : Founded by Valentinus, they used Christian terms but gave them symbolic meanings drawn from Gnostic cosmology. They had their own gospel interpretations and a spiritualized view of salvation.[15]

Marcionites

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In the early centuries after Jesus, different Christian communities produced many writings about his life, teachings, and followers. Some of these writings focused on sayings of Jesus. Others described events not found in the New Testament. A few presented completely different views about who Jesus was and what his message meant.

Today, the New Testament contains four gospels: Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. These were not the only ones written. Dozens of other gospels once existed. They were shared, copied, and read in Christian circles before the church finalized the canon. These writings are now called non-canonical gospels because they were eventually left out of the Bible.

This article introduces the major non-canonical gospels, explains what they contain, and notes when they were written. It does not analyze why they were accepted or rejected. That will be the focus of a separate article.

What Is a “Non-Canonical” Gospel?

The word canon refers to the official list of books accepted as scripture. A non-canonical gospel is any gospel not included in the New Testament.

These writings are still called “gospels” because they tell stories or teachings related to Jesus. The title “gospel” does not always mean a narrative account like the four canonical gospels. Some are dialogues, homilies, theological treatises, or sayings collections. A few contain only fragments. Others focus on Jesus’s family or events in his childhood. Some present entirely new interpretations of his death and resurrection.

How Many Gospels Existed?

Scholars have identified more than 30 gospels that circulated among early Christians. Some survive only in fragments. Others are mostly intact. Most were written between the mid-1st century and the 3rd century.

We know about these gospels from two main sources:

1. Ancient manuscripts discovered in places like Egypt, especially the Nag Hammadi library in 1945.

2. Quotations and summaries in the writings of early church fathers who often mentioned them to criticize or refute them.

Not all of these writings were intended as factual history. Some were symbolic or mystical. Others were written by Christian sects with beliefs that differed from the emerging orthodoxy of the later church.

Major Non-Canonical Gospels

Below is a categorized list of the best-known non-canonical gospels, with approximate dates, content, and notable traits.

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In the New Testament, there are four gospels that Christians have accepted from the very beginning. Although many early gospels circulated among Christian communities, only these four eventually became widely accepted. These books were not written during Jesus’s lifetime. They were composed decades later, with Mark around 60–70 CE, Matthew around 70–85 CE, Luke around 80–90 CE, and John around 90–100 CE. The original manuscripts do not name their authors, and modern scholars agree that these texts were not written by eyewitnesses. The acceptance of these four gospels by early Christian communities was influenced not only by their connection to apostles but also by their theological alignment with emerging church doctrines.

The word disciple means a follower or student. Jesus had many disciples who followed him, listened to his teaching, and tried to live by it. From among those followers, he chose twelve men for a special mission. These twelve are called the apostles. According to Christian belief, the apostles witnessed Jesus’s teachings, his miracles, and his resurrection. Early church tradition later connected each of the four gospels to an apostle or someone who knew an apostle, and this traditional connection is one reason they were accepted, even though modern scholarship does not confirm direct authorship by those individuals.

The names of the twelve apostles, as listed in the New Testament, are: Peter (also called Simon), Andrew, James son of Zebedee, John son of Zebedee, Philip, Bartholomew, Matthew (also called Levi), Thomas, James son of Alphaeus, Thaddaeus (also called Judas son of James in some lists), Simon the Zealot, and Judas Iscariot. After Judas Iscariot’s betrayal and death, Matthias was chosen to replace him.

When we say “The original manuscripts do not name their authors, and modern scholars agree that these texts were not written by eyewitnesses,” here is exactly what that means.

If you look at the earliest copies of these gospels, nowhere inside the text does it say, I, Matthew, wrote this or I, John, am giving you my eyewitness account. The writings start straight into the story without identifying who wrote them. The titles we see today like The Gospel According to Matthew or According to Luke were added later by early church tradition, not by the authors themselves.

Modern scholars across the board confirm this. For example:

Bart Ehrman writes: “The Gospels are all anonymous. Their titles—‘According to Matthew,’ ‘According to Mark,’ and so on—were added later.” (Jesus, Interrupted, p. 146)

Helmut Koester explains: “The oldest manuscripts of the Gospels have no names attached. The ascriptions to Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John were given by tradition.” (Ancient Christian Gospels, p. 35)

Raymond Brown also states: “The Gospel titles do not come from the authors themselves but from second-century church tradition.” (An Introduction to the New Testament, p. 158)

Because of this, scholars agree that these writings were not produced by identified eyewitnesses but by unknown authors within early Christian communities who were passing on the traditions they had received.

There is also the issue of timeline. Jesus’s ministry ended around 30 to 33 CE, yet the earliest gospel, Mark, was not written until around 60 to 70 CE, decades later. Matthew, Luke, and John came even later, up to 90 or 100 CE. That long gap means these writings were not made during the events but after years of oral tradition in different communities. By then, most original eyewitnesses would no longer have been alive. On top of that, the gospels themselves sometimes show differences in the order and timing of events, indicating the authors were not recording history like modern journalists but shaping stories and teachings they had received. This timeline is one key reason historians do not see the gospels as direct eyewitness reports.

What Christians Traditionally Believe and What Scholars Have Found

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The Setting: Jabal al‑Noor and Cave Hira

Cave Hira is a small cave located on Jabal al‑Noor, a mountain about three kilometers from Makkah. The cave itself is narrow, roughly 1.75 meters wide and 3.5 meters long, with an opening that overlooks the Kaʿbah. In the years before prophethood, Muhammad (peace be upon him) would climb this mountain and spend days or weeks in solitude. He would perform tahannuth, a form of reflection and worship practiced by people who rejected idol worship and sought the way of Ibrahim (a.s) also known as Abraham . He would bring provisions with him, stay there to meditate and worship, then return to Khadijah for more supplies before returning again. Early seerah works, including Ibn Hisham’s Sirat Rasul Allah, confirm this practice.

The Night of Power

One night in Ramadan, during one of these retreats in Cave Hira, something happened that he could not have expected. According to Sahih Bukhari, the angel Jibreel (Gabriel) came to him unexpectedly and said, “Iqra’” (Read or Recite):

“Read.”

The Prophet replied:

“I am not a reader.”

Jibreel then embraced him tightly until he could not bear it, then released him and said again:

“Read.”

He replied:

“I am not a reader.”

The angel embraced him again, released him, and repeated:

“Read.”

When the Prophet replied the same, the angel embraced him a third time and recited the first verses of revelation:

“Read in the name of your Lord who created.
Created man from a clot.
Read, and your Lord is the Most Generous.
Who taught by the pen.
Taught man what he did not know.”
(Qur’an 96:1–5)

These five verses marked the beginning of the Qur’an. They emphasize knowledge, creation, writing, and the generosity of the Creator.

The Prophet’s Immediate Reaction

The Prophet left the cave terrified and trembling. When he reached his home, he said:

“Cover me! Cover me!” (Zammilooni, zammilooni).

Khadijah covered him with a blanket and calmed him down. She reassured him with words preserved in Sahih Bukhari:

“Never! By Allah, Allah will never disgrace you. You keep good relations with your family, you help the poor and the destitute, you serve your guests generously, and you assist those afflicted by calamities.”

Sahih al‑Bukhari (Book of Revelation, Hadith 3) – Narrated ‘Aisha.

These words show how Khadijah immediately believed in him and knew his character would not be abandoned by Allah.

Waraqah ibn Nawfal’s Confirmation

Khadijah then took the Prophet to her cousin Waraqah ibn Nawfal. Waraqah was a Christian who had studied the scriptures of the Jews and Christians. When he heard what had happened, he said:

“This is the Namus (the angel Jibreel) that Allah sent to Musa (Moses). I wish I were young and could live until the day your people drive you out.”

The Prophet asked:

“Will they drive me out?”

Waraqah replied:

“No man has ever brought what you have brought except that he was met with hostility.”
(Sahih Bukhari, Book of Revelation, Hadith 3)

Scholarly Notes

Early scholars explain these details carefully. Ibn Hajar, in Fath al‑Bari, clarifies that the three embraces emphasize the seriousness of the message and the Prophet’s preparation to receive revelation. Ibn Kathir in Al‑Bidaya wa’l‑Nihaya and Al‑Tabari in Tarikh al‑Rusul wa’l‑Muluk record similar accounts that match the hadith in authenticity.

About the Exact Night and Laylat al‑Qadr

The Qur’an itself tells us that the revelation began on a special night in Ramadan. Allah says:

“Indeed, We sent the Qur’an down during the Night of Decree. And what can make you know what is the Night of Decree? The Night of Decree is better than a thousand months.”
(Qur’an 97:1–3)

This shows that the first revelation to Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) in Cave Hira happened on Laylat al‑Qadr. That night is in the last ten nights of Ramadan, but Allah did not tell us the exact date. The Prophet (peace be upon him) taught us:

“Search for the Night of Decree in the odd nights of the last ten nights of Ramadan.”
(Sahih Bukhari 2017)

The wisdom behind keeping the exact date hidden is explained by scholars. If everyone knew the exact date, most people would only worship on that one night. By hiding it, Allah encourages believers to strive harder in worship, prayer, and seeking forgiveness throughout all of the last ten nights. This increases reward and shows sincerity.

Ibn Hajar, in Fath al‑Bari, explains that this is a mercy from Allah. It motivates people to stay devoted, to look for the signs of that night, and to fill their last ten nights with worship instead of focusing on only one.

What is agreed upon by all scholars is that this event in Cave Hira marked the beginning of the Qur’an and the mission of the final Prophet, and that it happened on the blessed Night of Decree in Ramadan, even though the exact date within the last ten nights is not specified.

Authenticy Note: Every claim made in this article is higly credible and authentic. There are no weak hadiths or claims in this article.

Sources

1. Sahih Bukhari, Book of Revelation, Hadith 3.

2. Sahih Muslim, Book of Faith.

3. Qur’an 96:1–5.

4. Ibn Hisham, Sirat Rasul Allah.

5. Ibn Kathir, Al‑Bidaya wa’l‑Nihaya.

6. Ibn Saʿd, Tabaqat al‑Kubra.

7. Al‑Tabari, Tarikh al‑Rusul wa’l‑Muluk.

8. Ibn Hajar al‑Asqalani, Fath al‑Bari.

Stable Family Life and the Role of Khadijah (a.s)

At age 25, Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) married Khadijah bint Khuwaylid (a.s), a respected and wealthy businesswoman from Quraysh. Their marriage was monogamous and deeply supportive. Khadijah provided emotional, financial, and spiritual support. They lived together for 25 years until her death. She bore him several children:

• Qasim (died in infancy)

• Zaynab

• Ruqayyah

• Umm Kulthum

• Fatimah

• Abdullah (also called al-Tayyib or al-Tahir; died in infancy)

All of his children except Ibrahim were born from Khadijah. The Prophet had a deep connection to Fatimah (r.a), the youngest, who survived beyond his lifetime.

Note : For full details on Khadijah’s life, age, and legacy, see the separate article in the "Women of Truth" section.

His Life as a Merchant and Role in Society

The Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) continued his work in trade during this time. His honesty and reliability earned him the nickname Al-Ameen (the Trustworthy). He never lied, cheated, or exploited others in business. Quraysh society admired his conduct.

He did not participate in the idol-worshipping rituals of his tribe. He never drank alcohol, engaged in gambling, or attended immoral gatherings. He avoided the behavior of the jahili society around him.

The Rebuilding of the Ka'bah (Age 35)

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The exact year Khadijah (a.s) was born is not known with certainty. Her death, however, is confirmed to have occurred in 619 CE. This was the same year the Prophet (s.a.w)’s uncle Abu Talib died, and it became known as ‘Am al-Huzn, the Year of Sorrow.

Historical sources differ on how old she was at the time of her death. The widely repeated claim that she was 65 years old comes from early seerah compilations, such as Ibn Sa'd's Tabaqat al-Kubra and Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah, though the isnad (chain of transmission) for this specific age is weak and not classified as authentic by hadith scholars. These works mention she was 40 when she married the Prophet (s.a.w), and that she remained with him for 25 years, leading to the 65-year conclusion.

Other reports and modern analyses suggest she was closer to 50 or 55 years old at death. Researchers like Shaykh Nasir al-Din al-Albani (in Silsilat al-Ahadith al-Da‘ifah) and contemporary Islamic historians argue that the age of 40 at marriage lacks a reliable source and does not align well with other details in her life.

There are several historical and biological clues that support the argument for a younger age at marriage:

1. She gave birth to six children, including four daughters who lived until adulthood. It is biologically uncommon, especially in 7th-century Arabia, for a woman to give birth to that many children starting at age 40.

2. The births were spaced across many years, from shortly after marriage until just a few years before her death. This implies childbearing well into her 50s if we accept the 40-year claim, which is unlikely given the physical norms of the time.

3. There is no sahih hadith stating her age at marriage or death. All reports about her being 40 come through non-prophetic seerah accounts without sound isnad.

4. Some classical scholars, including Ibn Kathir, mention the 40-year claim but do not assert it as a confirmed fact. He presents it as a view reported by others, not as a verified conclusion (Al-Bidayah wa al-Nihayah).

5. The Prophet (s.a.w)’s deep love and long monogamous marriage with her may have also been used by later writers to emphasize her age gap, possibly to highlight her maturity or moral leadership, even if the age itself was inaccurately reported.

Taking all this into account, scholars today estimate that her actual age at marriage was more likely between 28 and 35 years old, which places her birth between approximately 584 and 591 CE. This also means she would have been in her early to mid-50s at the time of her death in 619 CE.

What is clear is that she was born in Makkah to a noble and respected family. Her father, Khuwaylid ibn Asad, was a successful merchant from the Banu Asad clan of Quraysh. Her mother, Fatimah bint Za’idah, also came from a high-ranking Qurayshi family. Her household was known for its wealth, influence, and strong moral values. Her father, Khuwaylid ibn Asad, was a respected Qurayshi merchant and tribal leader from the Banu Asad clan. Her mother, Fatimah bint Za’idah, also came from a noble family in Quraysh. Khadijah’s family was known for wealth, influence, and strong morals.

She grew up witnessing trade and leadership. When her father passed away, she inherited both his wealth and his position in business.

First Marriages

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Life in Abu Talib’s Home

Abu Talib had many children and limited resources. Despite this, he welcomed the Prophet into his home with affection. The Prophet lived among his cousins and worked to help support the household from an early age. He developed a close bond with Abu Talib and treated him with respect for the rest of his life. Throughout this period, there are no recorded incidents of the Prophet ever being involved in the idol worship, drinking, or immorality common in Makkah. His behavior remained clean and consistent with fitrah.

The Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) began working as a shepherd, tending sheep on the outskirts of the city. This was considered low-status work. Most people in Makkah saw shepherding as something for the poor or for outsiders. He did not complain. He worked quietly and learned through experience. According to ‌Sahih al‑Bukhari (Hadith 2262 and 3406), the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) said, “Allah did not send any prophet but shepherded sheep,” and when asked, “Were you a shepherd?” he replied, “There was no prophet who was not a shepherd.” This role taught him patience, responsibility, and leadership without needing to command with force. He learned how to lead by care, not fear.

His First Trade Journey to al-Sham (Greater Syria)

Around the age of twelve, the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) joined his uncle Abu Talib on a trade journey to the region known at the time as al-Sham. This was the Arabic name for Greater Syria, which included modern-day Syria, Palestine, Jordan, and Lebanon. The area was under Byzantine rule and was a major hub for trade between Arabia and the Roman world.

This was the Prophet’s first time traveling outside the Arabian Peninsula. The caravan passed through a town called Busra, located in the southern part of what is now modern-day Syria. There, they encountered a Christian monk named Bahira, who lived in a monastery near the route used by trading caravans.

According to early seerah sources such as Ibn Ishaq and Ibn Hisham, Bahira noticed something unusual about the young boy. He observed signs that matched what Christian scriptures described about a future prophet. Some narrations mention that a cloud gave him shade as he walked and that a unique mark between his shoulders caught the monk’s attention. These are reported in early biographies, but the authenticity of some details is debated.

Bahira then warned Abu Talib that the child would one day have a major mission and that he could be in danger if others recognized who he was. He strongly advised Abu Talib to protect him and return him to Makkah.

Authenticity Note: While the Bahira story appears in early seerah books, it is not found in Sahih Bukhari or Muslim, and the chain of narration is weak. Veins of Truth includes such reports only for historical context, with clear notes, so readers can learn what is well-authenticated and what may be folklore or hearsay. Our mission is to examine everything with evidence and transparency.

Makkah’s Society and His Quiet Resistance

During the Prophet’s youth, Makkah was known for being a central hub of trade, tribal politics, and poetry. Caravans regularly passed through, and merchants from across Arabia and beyond came to buy and sell goods. The city held a strong tribal structure where family status determined influence. Honor was deeply valued, but morality was often missing.

At the same time, Makkah was filled with idolatry, injustice, and exploitation. Almost every tribe had its own god or idol, and they brought these idols to the Kaʿbah, which had once been a monotheistic sanctuary built by Ibrahim (A.S). By the time of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) , the Kaʿbah had become a place of polytheistic rituals. According to authentic reports, there were 360 idols placed around and inside the Kaʿbah. These idols were made of wood, stone, copper, or gold, depending on the wealth of the tribe that placed them. Some were small and symbolic. Others were large statues.

The Quraysh were in charge of maintaining the Kaʿbah and hosting pilgrims, but their motivations were not religious. They used the Kaʿbah to gain tribal prestige and profit from visitors who came to worship idols. They sold idols, guided rituals, and made money through trade during the pilgrimage seasons. Religion became a source of business.

Makkah’s elite normalized other forms of corruption as well. Gambling and drinking were widespread, and so was interest-based lending, which kept the poor in debt. Infanticide especially the burial of infant girls was practiced by some tribes out of fear of poverty or shame. Slavery, tribal warfare, and injustice toward women, orphans, and outsiders were all part of the social order.

The Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) grew up in the middle of this. He saw the idol worship, the dishonesty in trade, the mistreatment of the weak, and the culture of arrogance but he never participated in any of it. There is no authentic report of him ever bowing to an idol, ever drinking alcohol, ever gambling, or joining any pagan festival. He stayed away from everything that involved shirk or corruption.

Some early seerah books, like the work of Ibn Ishaq reported by Ibn Hisham, mention that the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) once tried to attend a celebration but fell asleep before it began. However, this story is not found in any authentic hadith collection like Sahih al-Bukhari or Sahih Muslim. Scholars classify it as weak (da‘if) due to missing or unverifiable chains. While it’s often used to show that Allah protected the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) even before revelation, it should be understood as a weak narration, not a confirmed historical event.

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Where Is Banu Saʿd Located?

Banu Saʿd was a Bedouin sub-tribe of the larger Hawazan tribe. Their territory was located in the rural desert region east and southeast of Makkah, near the area of Ta’if. The map in this article shows the broader region of Hawazan, which is historically accurate for the tribe of Halimah, the foster mother of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w). While the name “Banu Saʿd” is not labeled directly, their location is included within that Hawazan region. Halimah brought the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) to this area during his early childhood, and he spent the first years of his life there in the care of her family. This was a banu sad tribe that mattered a lot to the early

Where Is Abwa?

Abwa is a small village located between Makkah and Yathrib (Madinah). It does not appear on most maps because of its small size and limited political importance. However, it holds deep significance in the life of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w). This is the place where his mother Aminah(a.s) passed away when he was six years old. Abwa’ lies along the traditional caravan route that travelers used to move between Makkah and Yathrib. On this map, it would fall roughly along the path connecting those two cities. While the village is not labeled, its historical location is confirmed in multiple seerah sources.

The Foster Tradition in Arabia

It was a common custom in Makkah for noble families to send their newborns to live with Bedouin tribes in the desert. The purpose was to raise children in a clean environment away from the diseases of the city. It also allowed them to develop strong bodies, a sharp tongue, and a pure dialect of Arabic. This tradition was especially important to the Quraysh, who saw linguistic purity as a marker of prestige.

The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) was sent to live with the tribe of Banu Sa‘d, a well-known Bedouin tribe located outside of Makkah. The woman who became his foster mother was Halimah bint Abi Dhu’ayb. She came to Makkah with other nursing women hoping to find children from wealthy families. Most women rejected the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) because he was fatherless and would not bring financial reward.

Halimah had no other option. Every other child had been taken. Her husband convinced her to take the orphan child. She accepted reluctantly. On the way back to her tribe, she noticed changes that surprised her. Her donkey, which had been weak and slow, moved faster than all others. Her camel began producing milk again. Her own milk increased enough to feed both her baby and the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w). These details are recorded in the seerah books of Ibn Hisham and Ibn Kathir. They are not found in the sahih hadith collections, but they were preserved by early historians as consistent reports.

Life with Halimah

The Prophet lived with Halimah and her family for approximately two years. During this time, her household witnessed unusual blessings. The animals became more productive. The pastures grew better than those of the surrounding tribes. Halimah and her husband knew this child was unlike the others. He did not cry excessively. He was quiet and observant. He was respectful even as a toddler.

When it came time to return him to his mother, Halimah requested to keep him longer. She wanted to continue raising him. Aminah(a.s) agreed. The Prophet (s.a.w) remained with Halimah for another one or two years.

The Chest-Opening Event

One day, while the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) was around four years old, he was playing outside in the fields with Halimah’s son. This was during the time he was living with his foster family in the desert area of Banu Sa’d. While they were playing, two unknown men dressed in white came toward him. They were not normal people. According to multiple authentic narrations, including (recorded in Sahih Muslim, Book 1, Hadith 318 — 162 c on Sunnah.com; also numbered Book 1, Hadith 311 in the older USC-MSA scheme) these two men were actually angels.

They took the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w), laid him on the ground, and physically opened his chest. They took out his heart. Then, they removed a black clot from it. One of the angels said, “This is the portion of Shaytan in you.” After that, they washed the heart with Zamzam water, using a golden vessel, and then placed it back inside and closed his chest.

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